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1736 lines
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<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
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<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content=
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"application/xhtml+xml; charset=utf-8" />
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<title>
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6.29. Coreutils-8.23
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</title>
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<link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" href="../stylesheets/lfs.css" />
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<meta name="generator" content="DocBook XSL Stylesheets V1.78.1" />
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</head>
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<body class="lfs" id="lfs-7.7-systemd">
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<div class="navheader">
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<h4>
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Linux From Scratch - Version 7.7-systemd
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</h4>
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<h3>
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Chapter 6. Installing Basic System Software
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</h3>
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<ul>
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<li class="prev">
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<a accesskey="p" href="e2fsprogs.html" title=
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"E2fsprogs-1.42.12">Prev</a>
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<p>
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E2fsprogs-1.42.12
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<li class="next">
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<a accesskey="n" href="iana-etc.html" title=
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"Iana-Etc-2.30">Next</a>
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Iana-Etc-2.30
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<a accesskey="u" href="chapter06.html" title=
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"Chapter 6. Installing Basic System Software">Up</a>
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"Linux From Scratch - Version 7.7-systemd">Home</a>
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</li>
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</ul>
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</div>
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<div class="wrap" lang="en" xml:lang="en">
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<h1 class="sect1">
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<a id="ch-system-coreutils" name="ch-system-coreutils"></a>6.29.
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Coreutils-8.23
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</h1>
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<div class="package" lang="en" xml:lang="en">
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<p>
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The Coreutils package contains utilities for showing and setting
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the basic system characteristics.
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</p>
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<div class="segmentedlist">
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<div class="seglistitem">
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<div class="seg">
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<strong class="segtitle">Approximate build time:</strong>
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<span class="segbody">2.5 SBU</span>
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</div>
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|
<div class="seg">
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<strong class="segtitle">Required disk space:</strong>
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<span class="segbody">193 MB</span>
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</div>
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</div>
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</div>
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</div>
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<div class="installation" lang="en" xml:lang="en">
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<h2 class="sect2">
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6.29.1. Installation of Coreutils
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</h2>
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<p>
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POSIX requires that programs from Coreutils recognize character
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boundaries correctly even in multibyte locales. The following patch
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fixes this non-compliance and other internationalization-related
|
|
bugs. Afterwards make sure the timestamp for <code class=
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|
"filename">Makefile.in</code> is later than all other files to
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prevent a <span class="command"><strong>make</strong></span> error:
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</p>
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|
<pre class="userinput">
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|
<kbd class="command">patch -Np1 -i ../coreutils-8.23-i18n-1.patch
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touch Makefile.in</kbd>
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</pre>
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<div class="admon note">
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<img alt="[Note]" src="../images/note.png" />
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<h3>
|
|
Note
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|
</h3>
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|
<p>
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|
In the past, many bugs were found in this patch. When reporting
|
|
new bugs to Coreutils maintainers, please check first if they are
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|
reproducible without this patch.
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</p>
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</div>
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|
<p>
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|
Now prepare Coreutils for compilation:
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|
</p>
|
|
<pre class="userinput">
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|
<kbd class="command">FORCE_UNSAFE_CONFIGURE=1 ./configure \
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--prefix=/usr \
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--enable-no-install-program=kill,uptime</kbd>
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|
</pre>
|
|
<div class="variablelist">
|
|
<p class="title">
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|
<strong>The meaning of the configure options:</strong>
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</p>
|
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<dl class="variablelist">
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<dt>
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<span class="term"><code class=
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|
"envar">FORCE_UNSAFE_CONFIGURE=1</code></span>
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</dt>
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<dd>
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<p>
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|
This environment variable allows the package to be built as
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the root user.
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</p>
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</dd>
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<dt>
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<span class="term"><em class=
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"parameter"><code>--enable-no-install-program=kill,uptime</code></em></span>
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</dt>
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<dd>
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<p>
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The purpose of this switch is to prevent Coreutils from
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installing binaries that will be installed by other packages
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later.
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</p>
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</dd>
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</dl>
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</div>
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<p>
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|
Compile the package:
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</p>
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<pre class="userinput">
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|
<kbd class="command">make</kbd>
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</pre>
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|
<p>
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|
Skip down to <span class="quote">“<span class="quote">Install
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|
the package</span>”</span> if not running the test suite.
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</p>
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<p>
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Now the test suite is ready to be run. First, run the tests that
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are meant to be run as user <code class="systemitem">root</code>:
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|
</p>
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|
<pre class="userinput">
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|
<kbd class="command">make NON_ROOT_USERNAME=nobody check-root</kbd>
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|
</pre>
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|
<p>
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|
We're going to run the remainder of the tests as the <code class=
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"systemitem">nobody</code> user. Certain tests, however, require
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that the user be a member of more than one group. So that these
|
|
tests are not skipped we'll add a temporary group and make the user
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|
<code class="systemitem">nobody</code> a part of it:
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</p>
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|
<pre class="userinput">
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|
<kbd class="command">echo "dummy:x:1000:nobody" >> /etc/group</kbd>
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</pre>
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<p>
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|
Fix some of the permissions so that the non-root user can compile
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|
and run the tests:
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</p>
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|
<pre class="userinput">
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|
<kbd class="command">chown -Rv nobody . </kbd>
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|
</pre>
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|
<p>
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|
Now run the tests. Make sure the PATH in the <strong class=
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|
"userinput"><code>su</code></strong> environment includes
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/tools/bin.
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|
</p>
|
|
<pre class="userinput">
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|
<kbd class="command">su nobody -s /bin/bash \
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-c "PATH=$PATH make RUN_EXPENSIVE_TESTS=yes check"</kbd>
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|
</pre>
|
|
<p>
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|
The stty-pairs test is known to fail on a virtual console, but
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passes if run in a X terminal.
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</p>
|
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<p>
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|
Remove the temporary group:
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</p>
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|
<pre class="userinput">
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|
<kbd class="command">sed -i '/dummy/d' /etc/group</kbd>
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</pre>
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<p>
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Install the package:
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</p>
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<pre class="userinput">
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<kbd class="command">make install</kbd>
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</pre>
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<p>
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|
Move programs to the locations specified by the FHS:
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</p>
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|
<pre class="userinput">
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|
<kbd class=
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|
"command">mv -v /usr/bin/{cat,chgrp,chmod,chown,cp,date,dd,df,echo} /bin
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mv -v /usr/bin/{false,ln,ls,mkdir,mknod,mv,pwd,rm} /bin
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mv -v /usr/bin/{rmdir,stty,sync,true,uname} /bin
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mv -v /usr/bin/chroot /usr/sbin
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mv -v /usr/share/man/man1/chroot.1 /usr/share/man/man8/chroot.8
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sed -i s/\"1\"/\"8\"/1 /usr/share/man/man8/chroot.8</kbd>
|
|
</pre>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Some packages in BLFS and beyond expect the following programs in
|
|
<code class="filename">/bin</code>, so make sure they are placed
|
|
there:
|
|
</p>
|
|
<pre class="userinput">
|
|
<kbd class="command">mv -v /usr/bin/{head,sleep,nice,test,[} /bin</kbd>
|
|
</pre>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<div class="content" lang="en" xml:lang="en">
|
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<h2 class="sect2">
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|
<a id="contents-coreutils" name="contents-coreutils"></a>6.29.2.
|
|
Contents of Coreutils
|
|
</h2>
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<div class="segmentedlist">
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<div class="seglistitem">
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<div class="seg">
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<strong class="segtitle">Installed programs:</strong>
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<span class="segbody">[, base64, basename, cat, chcon, chgrp,
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chmod, chown, chroot, cksum, comm, cp, csplit, cut, date, dd,
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df, dir, dircolors, dirname, du, echo, env, expand, expr,
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factor, false, fmt, fold, groups, head, hostid, id, install,
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join, link, ln, logname, ls, md5sum, mkdir, mkfifo, mknod,
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|
mktemp, mv, nice, nl, nohup, nproc, numfmt, od, paste, pathchk,
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|
pinky, pr, printenv, printf, ptx, pwd, readlink, realpath, rm,
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|
rmdir, runcon, seq, sha1sum, sha224sum, sha256sum, sha384sum,
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|
sha512sum, shred, shuf, sleep, sort, split, stat, stdbuf, stty,
|
|
sum, sync, tac, tail, tee, test, timeout, touch, tr, true,
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|
truncate, tsort, tty, uname, unexpand, uniq, unlink, users,
|
|
vdir, wc, who, whoami, and yes</span>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<div class="seg">
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|
<strong class="segtitle">Installed library:</strong>
|
|
<span class="segbody">libstdbuf.so</span>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<div class="seg">
|
|
<strong class="segtitle">Installed directory:</strong>
|
|
<span class="segbody">/usr/libexec/coreutils</span>
|
|
</div>
|
|
</div>
|
|
</div>
|
|
<div class="variablelist">
|
|
<h3>
|
|
Short Descriptions
|
|
</h3>
|
|
<table border="0" class="variablelist">
|
|
<colgroup>
|
|
<col align="left" valign="top" />
|
|
<col />
|
|
</colgroup>
|
|
<tbody>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="base64" name="base64"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>base64</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Encodes and decodes data according to the base64 (RFC
|
|
3548) specification
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="basename" name="basename"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>basename</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Strips any path and a given suffix from a file name
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="cat" name="cat"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class="command"><strong>cat</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Concatenates files to standard output
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="chcon" name="chcon"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>chcon</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Changes security context for files and directories
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="chgrp" name="chgrp"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>chgrp</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Changes the group ownership of files and directories
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
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|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
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|
<a id="chmod" name="chmod"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
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|
"command"><strong>chmod</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Changes the permissions of each file to the given mode;
|
|
the mode can be either a symbolic representation of the
|
|
changes to make or an octal number representing the new
|
|
permissions
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="chown" name="chown"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>chown</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Changes the user and/or group ownership of files and
|
|
directories
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="chroot" name="chroot"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>chroot</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Runs a command with the specified directory as the
|
|
<code class="filename">/</code> directory
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
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|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="cksum" name="cksum"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>cksum</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Prints the Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) checksum and the
|
|
byte counts of each specified file
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="comm" name="comm"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>comm</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Compares two sorted files, outputting in three columns
|
|
the lines that are unique and the lines that are common
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="cp" name="cp"></a><span class="term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>cp</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Copies files
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="csplit" name="csplit"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>csplit</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Splits a given file into several new files, separating
|
|
them according to given patterns or line numbers and
|
|
outputting the byte count of each new file
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="cut" name="cut"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class="command"><strong>cut</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Prints sections of lines, selecting the parts according
|
|
to given fields or positions
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="date" name="date"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>date</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Displays the current time in the given format, or sets
|
|
the system date
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="dd" name="dd"></a><span class="term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>dd</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Copies a file using the given block size and count, while
|
|
optionally performing conversions on it
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="df" name="df"></a><span class="term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>df</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Reports the amount of disk space available (and used) on
|
|
all mounted file systems, or only on the file systems
|
|
holding the selected files
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="dir" name="dir"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class="command"><strong>dir</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Lists the contents of each given directory (the same as
|
|
the <span class="command"><strong>ls</strong></span>
|
|
command)
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="dircolors" name="dircolors"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>dircolors</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Outputs commands to set the <code class=
|
|
"envar">LS_COLOR</code> environment variable to change
|
|
the color scheme used by <span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>ls</strong></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="dirname" name="dirname"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>dirname</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Strips the non-directory suffix from a file name
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="du" name="du"></a><span class="term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>du</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Reports the amount of disk space used by the current
|
|
directory, by each of the given directories (including
|
|
all subdirectories) or by each of the given files
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="echo" name="echo"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>echo</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Displays the given strings
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="env" name="env"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class="command"><strong>env</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Runs a command in a modified environment
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="expand" name="expand"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>expand</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Converts tabs to spaces
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="expr" name="expr"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>expr</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Evaluates expressions
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="factor" name="factor"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>factor</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Prints the prime factors of all specified integer numbers
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="false" name="false"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>false</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Does nothing, unsuccessfully; it always exits with a
|
|
status code indicating failure
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="fmt" name="fmt"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class="command"><strong>fmt</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Reformats the paragraphs in the given files
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="fold" name="fold"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>fold</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Wraps the lines in the given files
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="groups" name="groups"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>groups</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Reports a user's group memberships
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="head" name="head"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>head</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Prints the first ten lines (or the given number of lines)
|
|
of each given file
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="hostid" name="hostid"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>hostid</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Reports the numeric identifier (in hexadecimal) of the
|
|
host
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="id" name="id"></a><span class="term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>id</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Reports the effective user ID, group ID, and group
|
|
memberships of the current user or specified user
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="install" name="install"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>install</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Copies files while setting their permission modes and, if
|
|
possible, their owner and group
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="join" name="join"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>join</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Joins the lines that have identical join fields from two
|
|
separate files
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="link" name="link"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>link</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Creates a hard link with the given name to a file
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="ln" name="ln"></a><span class="term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>ln</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Makes hard links or soft (symbolic) links between files
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="logname" name="logname"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>logname</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Reports the current user's login name
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="ls" name="ls"></a><span class="term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>ls</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Lists the contents of each given directory
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="md5sum" name="md5sum"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>md5sum</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Reports or checks Message Digest 5 (MD5) checksums
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="mkdir" name="mkdir"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>mkdir</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Creates directories with the given names
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="mkfifo" name="mkfifo"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>mkfifo</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Creates First-In, First-Outs (FIFOs), a "named pipe" in
|
|
UNIX parlance, with the given names
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="mknod" name="mknod"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>mknod</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Creates device nodes with the given names; a device node
|
|
is a character special file, a block special file, or a
|
|
FIFO
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="mktemp" name="mktemp"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>mktemp</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Creates temporary files in a secure manner; it is used in
|
|
scripts
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="mv" name="mv"></a><span class="term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>mv</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Moves or renames files or directories
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="nice" name="nice"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>nice</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Runs a program with modified scheduling priority
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="nl" name="nl"></a><span class="term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>nl</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Numbers the lines from the given files
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="nohup" name="nohup"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>nohup</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Runs a command immune to hangups, with its output
|
|
redirected to a log file
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="nproc" name="nproc"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>nproc</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Prints the number of processing units available to a
|
|
process
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="numfmt" name="numfmt"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>numfmt</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Converts numbers to or from human-readable strings
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="od" name="od"></a><span class="term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>od</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Dumps files in octal and other formats
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="paste" name="paste"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>paste</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Merges the given files, joining sequentially
|
|
corresponding lines side by side, separated by tab
|
|
characters
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="pathchk" name="pathchk"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>pathchk</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Checks if file names are valid or portable
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="pinky" name="pinky"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>pinky</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Is a lightweight finger client; it reports some
|
|
information about the given users
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="pr" name="pr"></a><span class="term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>pr</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Paginates and columnates files for printing
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="printenv" name="printenv"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>printenv</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Prints the environment
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="printf" name="printf"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>printf</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Prints the given arguments according to the given format,
|
|
much like the C printf function
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="ptx" name="ptx"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class="command"><strong>ptx</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Produces a permuted index from the contents of the given
|
|
files, with each keyword in its context
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="pwd" name="pwd"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class="command"><strong>pwd</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Reports the name of the current working directory
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="readlink" name="readlink"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>readlink</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Reports the value of the given symbolic link
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="realpath" name="realpath"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>realpath</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Prints the resolved path
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="rm" name="rm"></a><span class="term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>rm</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Removes files or directories
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="rmdir" name="rmdir"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>rmdir</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Removes directories if they are empty
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="runcon" name="runcon"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>runcon</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Runs a command with specified security context
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="seq" name="seq"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class="command"><strong>seq</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Prints a sequence of numbers within a given range and
|
|
with a given increment
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="sha1sum" name="sha1sum"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>sha1sum</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Prints or checks 160-bit Secure Hash Algorithm 1 (SHA1)
|
|
checksums
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="sha224sum" name="sha224sum"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>sha224sum</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Prints or checks 224-bit Secure Hash Algorithm checksums
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="sha256sum" name="sha256sum"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>sha256sum</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Prints or checks 256-bit Secure Hash Algorithm checksums
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="sha384sum" name="sha384sum"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>sha384sum</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Prints or checks 384-bit Secure Hash Algorithm checksums
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="sha512sum" name="sha512sum"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>sha512sum</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Prints or checks 512-bit Secure Hash Algorithm checksums
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="shred" name="shred"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>shred</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Overwrites the given files repeatedly with complex
|
|
patterns, making it difficult to recover the data
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="shuf" name="shuf"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>shuf</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Shuffles lines of text
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="sleep" name="sleep"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>sleep</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Pauses for the given amount of time
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="sort" name="sort"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>sort</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Sorts the lines from the given files
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="split" name="split"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>split</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Splits the given file into pieces, by size or by number
|
|
of lines
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="stat" name="stat"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>stat</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Displays file or filesystem status
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="stdbuf" name="stdbuf"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>stdbuf</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Runs commands with altered buffering operations for its
|
|
standard streams
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="stty" name="stty"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>stty</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Sets or reports terminal line settings
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="sum" name="sum"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class="command"><strong>sum</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Prints checksum and block counts for each given file
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="sync" name="sync"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>sync</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Flushes file system buffers; it forces changed blocks to
|
|
disk and updates the super block
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="tac" name="tac"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class="command"><strong>tac</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Concatenates the given files in reverse
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="tail" name="tail"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>tail</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Prints the last ten lines (or the given number of lines)
|
|
of each given file
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="tee" name="tee"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class="command"><strong>tee</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Reads from standard input while writing both to standard
|
|
output and to the given files
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="test" name="test"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>test</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Compares values and checks file types
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="timeout" name="timeout"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>timeout</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Runs a command with a time limit
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="touch" name="touch"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>touch</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Changes file timestamps, setting the access and
|
|
modification times of the given files to the current
|
|
time; files that do not exist are created with zero
|
|
length
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="tr" name="tr"></a><span class="term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>tr</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Translates, squeezes, and deletes the given characters
|
|
from standard input
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="true" name="true"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>true</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Does nothing, successfully; it always exits with a status
|
|
code indicating success
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="truncate" name="truncate"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>truncate</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Shrinks or expands a file to the specified size
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="tsort" name="tsort"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>tsort</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Performs a topological sort; it writes a completely
|
|
ordered list according to the partial ordering in a given
|
|
file
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="tty" name="tty"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class="command"><strong>tty</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Reports the file name of the terminal connected to
|
|
standard input
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="uname" name="uname"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>uname</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Reports system information
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="unexpand" name="unexpand"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>unexpand</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Converts spaces to tabs
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="uniq" name="uniq"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>uniq</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Discards all but one of successive identical lines
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="unlink" name="unlink"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>unlink</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Removes the given file
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="users" name="users"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>users</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Reports the names of the users currently logged on
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="vdir" name="vdir"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>vdir</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Is the same as <span class="command"><strong>ls
|
|
-l</strong></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="wc" name="wc"></a><span class="term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>wc</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Reports the number of lines, words, and bytes for each
|
|
given file, as well as a total line when more than one
|
|
file is given
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="who" name="who"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class="command"><strong>who</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Reports who is logged on
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="whoami" name="whoami"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>whoami</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Reports the user name associated with the current
|
|
effective user ID
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="yes" name="yes"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><span class="command"><strong>yes</strong></span></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Repeatedly outputs <span class=
|
|
"quote">“<span class="quote">y</span>”</span>
|
|
or a given string until killed
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
<tr>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
<a id="libstdbuf" name="libstdbuf"></a><span class=
|
|
"term"><code class="filename">libstdbuf</code></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
<td>
|
|
<p>
|
|
Library used by <span class=
|
|
"command"><strong>stdbuf</strong></span>
|
|
</p>
|
|
</td>
|
|
</tr>
|
|
</tbody>
|
|
</table>
|
|
</div>
|
|
</div>
|
|
</div>
|
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<div class="navfooter">
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<p>
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E2fsprogs-1.42.12
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<li class="next">
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<a accesskey="n" href="iana-etc.html" title=
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Iana-Etc-2.30
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</li>
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<li class="up">
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<a accesskey="u" href="chapter06.html" title=
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